Kingdom, kings and early republic

The people of the third century AD were generally known as “Jana” and were ruled by Rajas. People were settled near rivers; from the post-Vedic period, people started living in geopolitical units in nearby rivers. Kingdoms were established by clearing the forest cover from the tribal people, and they started to live in a marked territory. Iron ore was used to clear the forest in northern India, and the people of early kingdoms started cultivation on fertile soil. Early Buddhist text illuminated the sowing of paddy, sugarcane and mustard in these early kingdoms. The development in agriculture and improvement in the production of food grains further results in the rise of other industries such as the craft industry, ornament industry, etc. This also leads to the development of urban trade centres. These centres further develop into the cities or capitals of early kingdoms of early republics. Early cities, including around sixty such as Rajagriha, Varanasi, Pataliputra, Vaishali, Ujjaini, Champa, Kaushambi etc., became centres of excellence for craft, textile, jewellery, pottery and silk production.

The artisan and merchants living in these cities started to form shrine’s . The cities were ruled by Rajas and may be chosen by Jana of that region. Raja performs many rituals, Yajna for the welfare of his people and kingdom and performs enormous sacrifices such as Ashwamedha yajna, Rajasuya Yajna etc. Priests sprinkle holy water on Raja before the Yajna sacrifice. The family of Raja took part in this Yajna. All people except Shudras can perform or participate in Yajnas. Early kingdoms were issued some punch-marked coins of metal; these coins can be used as currency or to pay the salary of soldiers. These early kingdoms were known as Janapdas, and afterwards, the many Janapadas collectively formed the Mahajanapadas. 

With the change in society and the emergence of new kingdoms, many new groups of people emerged. Such as Gahpati: Was the owner of an individual household that owned a large piece of land. Such land needs thousands of ploughs to get cultivated, and many workers worked in these farms called Karmkara or Shudras (hired labour) and slaves (das): permanently bonded labour of Gahpatis. Group of merchants: shrenis, shettis etc. Rulers or Rajas: Where Raja rules the kingdom, Bhagadughas collect the Bhaga (tax) from agricultural land, Rajjugahakas survey agricultural land, and Kosaka: Farmers who pay the taxes. The King designated their family members as officers for administration. Brahmins play the leading role in the legal and prosecution administration system. 

Varna

The varna system originated during the Vedic period. However, during the Vedic period, varna division was based on the profession, and in the later Vedic period, varna was decided by birth, not by profession. If a child is born in a Brahmin family, he/she will be a brahmin by birth and have to follow the rituals and profession of brahmins. This system became more polluted during later Vedic periods as the early Vedic period had a horizontal division of people. In the later Vedic period, it followed a vertical manner (Top Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and at lower level Shudras). The first place in the vertical system was occupied by Brahmins, and they were expected to teach Vedas, perform Yajna, sacrifice, rituals, and receive gifts as compliments. The second in line was Kshatriyas; they were to fight a war, protect people, soldiers to protect territory and ensure law and order implementation. Third in the line were Vaishyas, who were expected to be farmers, traders, herders and merchants. All these three varnas can perform sacrifice and perform rituals. Fourth and lowest in the varna system were Shudras, who were not allowed to participate in sacrifices, rituals and study Vedas. They performed work like cleaning cities and performing burials. 

Janapadas

Janapadas of 1100 BCE were an early republic and kingdom of the later Vedic period in northern India. This was the start of the Iron Age. Most of the Janapadas were combined to form Mahajanapadas or annexed by a powerful ruler to form a more significant state. Janapadas were the highest geopolitical administration unit in northern and northwestern India. These were generally monarchical and then converted to the Republicans. The succession was mainly hereditary, but sometimes it was challenged by the young soldiers or a group of people to make Rajas out of rule. The head of the kingdom was called Rajas or Rajan. Rajas were assisted by a group of people called Purohita (Chief Priest), Senani (Chief Commander), Bhagadukkas (Tax collector) etc. Two more political bodies were working in the society: The sabha and Samiti, the sabha composed of a council of elders and the Samiti composed of an assembly of the entire people of the city. For example, Paura sabha or pur sabha handled matters related to the municipal administration. 

Mahajanapadas

Mahajanapadas became an important centre of administration during the 500 BCE. Mahajanapadas mainly had a fortified capital city. Massive walls around the city are made of wood, baked bricks or stones. These were oligarchs in northern India’s republic and referred to the second urbanisation of civilization on this continent. Forts were built to protect people or to protect society from foreign attacks. Evidence of Mahajanapadas was provided by many Jainism and Buddhism Texts. Such as Anguttara Nikaya, as mentioned in the Gandhara kingdoms in the northwestern part and the anga kingdom in Eastern India. It is also mentioned that the rise of these Mahajanapadas also flourished the trade craft traditions, and the capital city of these Mahajanapadas emerged as the main trading centres of 500 BCE time. This period identified the type of pottery, “Painted grey ware pottery,” found by the excavation of sites near the capital cities. Rulers of these Mahajanapadas maintained well-regulated armies, and soldiers of kingdoms were paid regular salaries. Payments may be made in punch-marked coins issued by Rajas. Each Mahajanapadas is named based on the people they rule in the Mahajanapadas or on the name of the Kshatriya clan of Mahajanapadas. Buddhist texts mention the 16 Mahajanapadas and important Mahajanapadas are named Ujjaini, Vaishali, Magadha, Anga, Kosala, Kuru, Gandhara, Panchala etc.

Taxes

Rulers of Mahajanapadas required money to maintain the big armies, build the forts, fortify the cities, hence they had to impose a tax on people. The main profession of this period was agriculture as the forests were cleared for agriculture, and important persons were allotted a piece of land to practice agriculture. The main taxes imposed by rulers are as follows.

Bhaga:

share of crop that the agriculturists produce. It was imposed at the rate of one-sixth. 

1. Craft person imposed the tax as in labour form. He or she has to give some labour hours at the Palace. 
2. Herders and forest dwellers were taxed on animal products and forest produce; what they collected, they had to surrender a part of it to the ruler.
3. Goods traders taxed as part of the trade.

Conclusion 

So it can be concluded that the early kingdoms were composed of many small units or villages. Early rulers were selected by the people. The process of the republic may be followed, and Rajas was chosen by the people. Raja has some people to assist him on some important matters. These are called Janapadas, and these Janapadas were annexed by powerful rulers to form the Mahajanapadas with a fortified capital city and have a walled fort for the residence of the ruler and their employees. They maintained armies to protect their kingdom and to expand their kingdom. The varna system became more rigid, and a new society emerged after this period known as the Untouchables, who occupied the lowest place in the Varna system. Which still prevailed in Indian society. Rulers of Mahajanapadas imposed a tax on each social group to maintain huge armies and build forts. Agriculture was the main occupation, and the expansion of iron mines led to more tools for agriculture expansion.