French Revolution

The French Revolution possessed both general and specific characteristics that explained why it was by far the most violent and globally significant of all revolutions in the Western world at the end of the 18th century. The first of the general causes was the Western social structure. The feudal system had gradually weakened and had already disappeared in some parts of Europe. The bourgeoisie, a growing and opulent class of wealthy commoners—merchants, manufacturers, and professionals—aspired to political power in countries where it did not yet exist. The peasants, many of whom owned land, had raised their standard of living and education and desired the abolition of the last vestiges of feudalism in order to gain full landowner rights and the freedom to expand their holdings. Furthermore, since around 1730, rising living standards have resulted in a significant decrease in adult mortality rates. This, along with other factors, resulted in an unprecedented increase in Europe’s population, which doubled between 1715 and 1800. The problem was especially acute in France, which had 26 million inhabitants in 1789 and was Europe’s most populous country.

As the population grew, so did the demand for food and consumer goods. When new gold mines were discovered in Brazil around 1730, prices rose throughout the West, reflecting a prosperous economic situation. Around 1770, this progress slowed, and economic crises became more common, causing panic and even revolution. Arguments for social change began to emerge. Although 17th-century theorists like René Descartes, Benedict de Spinoza, and John Locke influenced the philosophes (intellectuals whose writings inspired these arguments), they reached vastly different conclusions on political, social, and economic issues. A revolution was required to put Montesquieu’s, Voltaire’s, or Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s ideals into practice. The Enlightenment was spread among the educated classes through the many “societies of thought” that were formed at the time, such as masonic lodges, agricultural societies, and reading rooms.

French Revolution and politics:

It is unclear, however, whether a revolution would have occurred in the absence of a political crisis. Faced with the high costs of the 18th century’s conflicts, European monarchs sought to raise funds by taxing aristocrats and clergy, who were previously exempt in most countries. To justify this, the rulers disguised themselves as “enlightened despots,” citing the reasoning of renowned philosophers. The wealthy bodies, diets, and estates of Europe reacted quickly. This response sparked the North American Revolution, which began with a refusal to pay a levy imposed by the British king. Monarchs attempted to quell the aristocracy’s reaction, and rulers and privileged classes alike sought allies among the nonprivileged bourgeois and peasants.

Although scholarly debate over the precise causes of the Revolution continues, the following factors are frequently mentioned: 

(1) the bourgeoisie resented their exclusion from political power and honorific positions; 

(2) the peasants were acutely aware of their situation and were becoming increasingly unwilling to support the anachronistic and burdensome feudal system

(3) the philosophes had been read more widely in France than anywhere else

(4) French participation in the Revolution had driven the government to the brink of bankruptcy; and (5) France was the most populous country in Europe.

Charles-Alexandre de Calonne, France’s controller general of finances, convened an assembly of “notables” (prelates, great noblemen, and a few representatives of the bourgeoisie) in February 1787 to propose reforms aimed at eliminating the budget deficit by increasing taxation of the privileged classes. The assembly refused to accept responsibility for the reforms and proposed calling a meeting of the Estates-General, which included clergy, aristocracy, and the Third Estate (commoners) and hadn’t met since 1614. The efforts of Calonne’s successors to impose fiscal changes in the face of opposition from the privileged classes sparked the so-called “aristocratic bodies” revolt, which included the parlements (the highest courts of justice), whose powers were limited by the edict of May 1788.

Conclusion

Throughout the spring and summer of 1788, unrest erupted in Paris, Grenoble, Dijon, Toulouse, Pau, and Rennes. The king, Louis XVI, was forced to submit. He reappointed the reformist finance minister Jacques Necker and promised to convene the Estates-General on May 5, 1789. In reality, he also granted press freedom, and France was inundated with pamphlets advocating the restoration of the state. The Estates-General elections, which took place between January and April 1789, coincided with increased unrest, as the 1788 harvest had been poor. There were almost no restrictions on voting, and voters filled out cahiers de doléances, which detailed their frustrations and desires. They chose 600 Third Estate representatives, 300 aristocratic representatives, and 300 clergy representatives.