Evolution of Mankind

To understand the evolution of mankind, we look at human fossils, stone tools and cave paintings as sources to put together the life of early humans. Fossils are remains/impressions of early humans turned into stone over time. Stone tools made by sharpening pebbles, stones into blades, etc., hint at their hunting practices. Cave paintings then tie together the story of early humans and their communication skills.

Story of Human Evolution

For about 36-24 million years ago (mya), mammals in Asia and Africa emerged called Primates. They were a subgroup of mammals such as monkeys, apes and humans; all had body hair, a long gestation period of birth, mammary glands, varied kinds of teeth, and evolved bodies that controlled body temperature. 

Then around 24-5.6 mya, this group evolved into a subgroup of primates, called Hominoids. They had larger bodies, no tail, which differentiated them from monkeys. Their infancy development was over a more extended period, and thus dependency increased among hominoids. Then 5.6-1.8mya, hominoids evolved into hominids.

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Difference between Hominoids and Hominids

• Hominoids have smaller brains than hominids
• Hominoids are quadrupeds that walk on all four legs, whereas hominids evolved an upright posture and bipedal (walking on two feet)
• Hominoids had flexible forelimbs and had different hands. In addition, hominids had flexible hands, legs and fingers, which helped them make tools and weapons

Hominids further evolved in two branches: Australopithecus and homo, each turning into various species. The significant difference between these two was Australopithecus’ had smaller brains, heavy jaws and large teeth than the homos. {Australopithecus- Latin word, Austral– southern, and Greek word, Pithekos– ape. Homo– Latin word- man}. Homo’s were further identified into three different evolved forms, homo-habilis, homo-Erectus and homo-sapiens.

Positive Feedback Mechanism

The development of early human anatomy features is called positive feedback mechanism, developments that favoured and shaped the modern human form. For example, bipedalism (walking on two feet) helps save energy and efficient hunting, infant care and making/using weapons. 

The flexible hand/fingers allowed hands to carry infants/objects, and with increasing flexibility in hands, running became easier. Bigger brain size evolved the capacity to think, form memory, and help planning.

The Centre of Human Origin

Two main theories define the origins of humans. The regional continuity model pronounced that homo-sapiens originated at different regions/continents that gradually evolved (at different rates) into modern humans. This theory takes into account various features of modern humans such as skin and hair colour, height, etc. 

The second theory is the replacement model, which states that all modern humans originated in a single region (Africa) and then migrated to different regions/continents. This theory is based on anatomical similarities and genetic hegemony, such as two hands, legs and eyes, five fingers, mouth, etc.

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Life of Early Humans

Food and hunting

Early humans gathered food in several ways, like hunting, scavenging, fishing and gathering. Evidence from Box grove (England) and Schoningen (Germany) suggest that hunting started 500000 years ago, depicting deliberate, planned methods of hunting and large mammals being butchered. It suggests that early hominids scavenged for the meat of animals (died of natural causes or were killed by predators). 

Their scavenging could also include smaller mammals like rodents, birds, eggs, reptiles and insects. Fishing (done by hand or stone/wood tools) from rivers, ponds and lakes was another necessary means of obtaining food. The gathering involved collecting plant foods like nuts, seeds, berries, fruits, etc. It was more individual than collective activity.

Shelter and residence pattern

Distribution of artefacts at sites where food was abundant, and humans visited regularly helps us understand their activities and presence. The first shelter was a tree that hominids shared with other primates and carnivores. Around 400000-125000 years ago, caves became a preferred shelter, suggested by a shelter made against a cave wall and stone tools and food, found in Lazaret cave, France. 

Sites from Terra Amata (France) suggest shelters were made with wood/grass roofs for temporal/seasonal visits. Remains at Chesowanja (Kenya) and Swartkrans (South Africa) from 1.4-1 may suggest shelter was made with stone, burnt bones and baked clay, suggesting controlled use of fire. It shows that the fire was used for warmth, light and cooking, hardening wood for tools.

Tools and technology

While tool and tool making is not confined to humans, chimpanzees are also known to use tools . Anatomical and neurological developments led to skills of using fingers to make tools by the early humans. Sites in Ethiopia and Kenya provide early evidence of stone tool-making, which requires complex organisational and memory skills. 

These could be by homo-habilis. Around 35000 years ago, hunting technology evolved as suggested by tools such as spear throwers and bow and arrows. Early evidence from 21000 years ago suggests the invention of sewing and the use of needles in making clothing out of fur.

Communication: Language and Art

The first users of language (hand gestures and other movements) were hominids—later, other vocal but non-verbal ways developed (humming/singing). Certain neurological features of homo-habilis suggest they may have small vocal sounds like speech, which developed into language. 

Language, therefore, must have developed about 200000 years ago. Around the same time as language developed, art as a form of communication came into existence. Hundreds of animal paintings (bison, horses, deer, mammoths, rhinos, lions, bears, panthers and hyenas) were discovered in caves of France and Spain around 30-12000 years ago.

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Early Human Life to Modern Human Beings: Developments around 10000-4500 BCE

After hunting wild animals and relying on wild plants, humans around 10000-4500 BCE began domesticating animals and plants. This was the earliest form of farming and pastoral way of life and a major turning point of human history. Agriculture encouraged people to stay in one place for an extended period, and therefore permanent housing (made of mud, bricks and stones) came into practice and created a village life. 

Agriculture also introduces techniques of saving food and grains, as storage pots from various archaeological sites suggest. This also modernised tools with a wooden plough to metal (copper, tin) tools. The wheel came into use for making pot and transportation. And around 5000 years ago, cities came into being with a more significant concentration of people in a place.

Modern Human Beings:

• Some of the earliest evidence for Homo sapiens has been found in different parts of Africa
• Two totally divergent views have been expounded, one advocating the regional continuity model (with multiple regions of origin), the other the replacement model (with a single origin in Africa)

Conclusion

Primate mammals coming into existence marks the start of human history, and their development into hominoids and hominids was the first stage of anatomical and neurological evolution. Hominid development from homo habilis to homo Erectus to homo sapiens gave way to early human form and detailed anatomical evolution. 

Early humans then defined hunting practices, shelter patterns, tool-making, communication and art skills, which suggests the slow development of modern human life as we know it today. Finally, the development of agricultural practice, proper language skills and thus modern metal tools gave way for the pastoral to urban way of living as we know human life today.