Examples: The Solid State

Introduction to the solid-state

Solid State is a must-read chapter in chapter 1 of the 12th-grade course To comprehend chemistry fundamentals. Many following chapters build on the foundation of the condition of matter. Understanding Chapter 1 is essential for students preparing for the Class 12 Chemistry board exam. To aid them, students may use the Class 12th Chemistry Chapter 1 notes, which have been developed by qualified Chemistry instructors who are well-versed in the newest CBSE curriculum and Class 12 board exam patterns.

Solid-state Chemistry Class 12 notes are brief and to the point, with many questions likely to appear in the board test. After analysing past years’ Class 12 Chemistry examinations, these notes have been developed to incorporate the most important questions and concepts in an easy-to-understand format.

What is a solid-state matter?

As its name suggests, “solid” describes a condition of matter in which the component particles are tightly packed together. Atoms, volume, ions, and other component particles may be found in a solid. The form, mass, and volume of solid things may be attributed to the strong and brief interactions between their constituent particles.

A solid state’s physical properties: the solid-state

Solids, like all other substances, display certain qualities at all times, and they include:

• Their tiny intramolecular distance makes the intermolecular force very strong.
• They can’t be compressed and have a hard form.
• They have a set form, volume and density.
• An object’s particles are held in place and cannot be moved about freely.
• Particles in solids can only move in the direction of their mean location.

Types of solids: the solid-state

Crystallised

A crystallised solid adheres to a predetermined shape. Particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) are arranged in a long-range order across the three-dimensional network in such materials. Sodium Chloride, Quartz, Diamond, and so on are examples.

What are the characteristics of crystallinity?

• When the temperature exceeds a certain degree, crystalline substances begin to melt.
• Crystalline solids have a predetermined form and a well-defined arrangement of atoms.
• For example, when a sharp instrument is used to slice through them, they split in half, and the new surfaces that form are perfectly flat.
• They have a distinct fusion heat source (amount of energy needed to melt a given mass of solid at its melting point).
• Physical parameters like electrical resistance and refractive index may vary depending on the direction in which they are measured in the same crystal.

Amorphous

One kind of amorphous solid-state material is hard and incompressible but only to a limited degree. They are ambiguous in terms of geometrical shape or extended range of order. Glass, rubber, and plastic are just a few examples.

Amorphous Solids’ Properties

• When heated to a certain temperature, amorphous substances progressively soften and may be shaped into various forms.
• There are several different types of amorphous solid. The most common are pseudo solids, which are supercooled liquids. Glass panes fastened to windows in historic buildings are discovered to be somewhat thicker at the bottom than at the top if you look closely enough.
• In the case of amorphous solids, the arrangement of their component particles is undefined.
• This results in uneven surface pieces when sliced with a sharp edge.
• Amorphous solids do not have a specific fusion temperature because of their random particle arrangement.
• Any physical attribute of an amorphous solid would be the same regardless of which direction it was seen from due to its random particle arrangement.

The unit cell

Now that we’ve covered solid-state class 12 notes let’s move on to another sub-topic, the unit cell concept. The unit cell is the smallest geometrical component in the crystal lattice that may be repeated to make up the complete crystal. The following are the four distinct kinds of unit cells:

• Particles are only present in the corners of a simple or basic Unit cell.
• Particles are located in the corners and the centre of each of the six faces.
• The unit cell is a body-centred one, with particles at the corners and centre.
• Particles may be found in the corners and amid two opposing sides.

Particle Density Per Cell

According to symmetry and interfacial angles and axes, around 230 crystal shapes have been categorised into 14 kinds of space lattices, known as Bravais Lattices, and seven different crystal systems.

If you divide the volume occupied by each ball by its entire volume, you get your packing fraction.

Ionic Crystals’ Structure

The cation/anion ionic radius ratios are crucial in establishing the crystal structure of ionic substances. There are two kinds of ionic crystals mentioned in the chapter on the solid-state of class 12 chemistry, namely:

AB-type

A2B or AB2:

Observe that a CsCI structure (8:8) is formed when pressure is applied, but the reverse happens when raised temperatures (760 K).

Points of Defect

Abnormalities or departures from the ideal arrangement of atoms or points in a crystalline solid are point defects. Point faults may be categorised into three categories:

The electrical neutrality of the material and the ion ratio (Stoichiometric) are unaffected by this sort of point defect. “intrinsic” or “thermodynamic faults” may be used interchangeably. There are two groups to choose from: Some faults include Vacancy defects and Interstitial defects.

An intermolecular region known as the Frenkel defect is when the cation (the smaller ion) goes out of its site in ionic solids. A vacancy defect exists at the original place, while an interstitial defect exists in the new position.

One form of vacancy defect in ionic solids is the Schottky defect. However, it is necessary to remove an equal amount of anions and cations when dealing with ionic compounds to restore the complex’s electrical neutrality. It reduces the weight of the material. The cations and anions in this scenario are roughly equal in size.

Conclusion

Changing the temperature and pressure of an item or element may alter its physical characteristics, which is known as Change of State. When we heat or freeze water, for example, we transform it into water vapour or ice.

Two opposing forces inherent in an element’s atom determine its states and stability. Solids are formed and remain stable due to the interaction of these two forces.