Rock-Cut Architecture in India

Indian rock-cut architecture is mostly religious. There are more than 1,500 known rock-cut structures in India. Many of these structures contain artwork of global importance, and most are adorned with exquisite stone carvings. These ancient and medieval structures represent significant achievements of structural engineering and craftsmanship. The effort expended often astonishes visitors, but seen from one aspect, a rock-cut structure is a decorated rock quarry; most of the stone removed was typically put to economic use elsewhere.

Rock-cut architecture occupies a very important place in the history of Indian Architecture. The rock-cut architecture differs from traditional buildings in many ways. The rock-cut art is more similar to sculpture than architecture as structures were produced by cutting out solid rocks. Let’s have a look at various specimens of rock-cut architecture in ancient India. Some prominent rock-cut structures of ancient India are Chaityas, Viharas, temples, etc.

In India, caves have long been regarded as sacred places. Caves that were enlarged or entirely man-made were believed to be as sacred as natural caves. The sanctuary in all Indian religious structures, even free-standing ones, was designed to have the same cave-like feeling, as it is generally small and dark, without natural light. The oldest rock-cut architecture is found in the Barabar Caves, Bihar, which was built around the 3rd century BC. Other early cave temples are found in the western Deccan; these are mostly Buddhist shrines and monasteries, dating between 100 BC and 170 AD. Originally, there were probably wooden structures associated with them, which would have deteriorated over time.

Rock-Cut Architecture in India:

Rock is a type of rock art in which a structure is created by carving it out of solid natural rock. It was constructed during the regime of the Satavahana rulers and their successors.

The rock-cut structures present the most spectacular piece of ancient Indian art specimen. Most of the rock-cut structures were closely associated with various religions and religious activities. The rock-cut art is more similar to sculpture than architecture as structures were produced by cutting out solid rocks

Early caves:

Natural caves used by local inhabitants for a variety of purposes such as shrines and shelters constitute the earliest caves employed by humans. The early caves included overhanging rock decorated with rock-cut art and the use of natural caves during the Mesolithic period (6000 B.C.E.). Their use has continued in some areas into historic times. The Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, a World Heritage site, stand on the edge of the Deccan Plateau where deep erosion has left huge sandstone outcrops. The many caves and grottos found there contain primitive tools and decorative rock paintings that reflect the ancient tradition of human interaction with their landscape, an interaction that continues.

Caves Temples:

When Buddhist missionaries arrived, they naturally gravitated to caves for use as cave temples and abodes, in accord with their religious ideas of asceticism and monastic life. Ajanta constitutes the earliest of the Kanheri Caves, excavated in the first and second centuries B.C.E Buddhist monks continuously occupied them from 200 B.C.E to 650 C.E.

Monolithic rock-cut temples:

The Pallava architects started the carving of rock for the creation of monolithic copies of structural temples. A feature of the rock-cut cave temple distribution until the time of the early Pallavas is that they did not move further south than Aragandanallur, with the solitary exception of Tiruchirapalli on the south bank of the Kaveri River, the traditional southern boundary between north and south. Also, good granite exposures for rock-cut structures were generally not available south of the river.

Ellora cave temple 16, the Kailash Temple, provides a singular example, excavated from the top down rather than by the usual practice of carving into the scarp of a hillside.

Evolution of Indian Rock-cut Architecture:

• The earliest rock-cut caves are attributed to Ashoka and his grandson Dasaratha. The early Buddhist architecture covers the period from the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD. The excavations belonging to this period mostly consist of chaitya, and Viharas. They were mostly constructed of wood. Examples of early Buddhist architecture can still be seen at Karla, Kanheri, Nasik, Bhaja, Bedsa, and Ajanta.
• The second phase of rock-cut architecture began in the 5th century AD. This phase was characterized by the elimination of timber and by the introduction of the image of the Buddha as a dominant of the architectural design. Viharas underwent a slight change during this time, the inner cells inhabited by the monks alone, now housed the image of the Buddha as well.
• The next and perhaps the most dominant phase in the rock-cut tradition happens to be the Dravid rock-cut cut style. The primary features of this style are mandapa and ratha. The mandapa is an open hall with two or more cells on the back wall. The ratha is a monolithic shrine carved out of a single rock.

Classification of Rock-cut architecture:

The architectures are classified into Rock-cut caves and Rock-cut temple architecture.

1.Rock-cut caves:

• Mauryan Period:

• The earliest rock-cut caves in India are attributed to the Mauryan period, mainly to Ashoka (273- 232BC) and his grandson Dasharath.

• Caves in this period were generally used as Viharas i.e living quarters, by the Jain and Buddhist monks.

Example: Barabar caves in Bihar were formed during the time of Dasharath, grandson of Ashoka.

• Post-Mauryan Period: The construction of rock caves continued as in the Mauryan period. However, this period saw the development of Viharas and Chaitya halls.
  The Chaitya halls were mainly quadrangular chambers with flat roofs and used as prayer halls.

Examples: Karle chaitya hall, Ajanta caves.

• Gupta Period: the emergence of the Gupta Empire in the 4th century A.D. is often hailed as the Golden period of Indian Architecture.

During the Gupta period, the architectural development of the caves remained constant. However, the use of mural paintings on the walls of the caves became an added feature.

Examples:

1. Ajanta Caves: They were constructed as a shelter for Hinayana monks. They are famous for
   their mural paintings that have developed into a separate painting school. They
   illustrate Jataka tales and put light on the way of life during the period.
2. Ellora Caves: Ellora rock-cut caves were developed by Rashtrakutas rulers and dedicated to
   Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism. They have a major contribution to sculpture art in Hindu temples.
3. Badami Caves: Badami caves were constructed during the Chalukya rulers and represent
   Hinduism and Jainism faith. The mural paintings are an extension of Ajanta’s school of paintings.

2. Rock-cut Temple Architecture:

The architects of the Pallava Dynasty initiated rock carving to create monolithic structures that resemble temples.

Temple architecture in south India began under the Pallava ruler Mahendravarman.

The temples developed during the Pallava dynasty reflected the stylistic taste of the individual rulers and can be classified into four stages:

1. Mahindra group: this was the first stage of Pallava temple architecture. The temples built under Mahendravarman were rock-cut temples.
2. Narasimha group: the second stage of the development of temple architecture in South India. The rock-cut temples were decorated with intricate sculptures.
3. Rajasimha group and Nandivarman group: Third and fourth stage of temple development. Development of real structural temples was started which replaced the rock-cut temples.

Examples of rock-cut Temples:

• Kailash Temple:  It is a rock-cut temple complex dedicated to Lord Shiva in the Ellora Caves. It was developed under the patronage of Rashtrakuta King Krishna I and was carved out of a monolith, and even has a courtyard. There is a sculpture on the wall of the Kailash temple depicting Ravana shaking Mount Kailash.it is considered one of the masterpieces of Indian sculpture. 

It is counted among the largest rock-cut monastery temple caves complexes in the world and is marked as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

• Badami cave Temples: Badami was the capital of Chalukyas. It has four cave temples based on Hinduism and Jainism. This is rock-cut architecture that dates back to the 6th century AD.

Conclusion:

Rock-cut architecture is the process of constructing a structure by carving it out of natural rock. Indian rock-cut architecture is more diverse and abundant than any other type of rock building seen around the world. It was constructed during the regime of the Satavahana rulers and their successors. There are more than 1,500 known rock-cut structures in India. Many of these structures contain artwork of global importance, and most are adorned with exquisite stone carvings.