The Jain Literature

Jainism is a religion that flourished in 6th century India, founded by Mahavira. It preached a path to attain purity of the spirit and enlightenment through discipline and ahimsa (non-violence).

Vardhamana, who came to be known as Mahavira after he attained true knowledge, was born in Bihar and related to the members of the eminent dynasty of Magadha.

At the age of twenty, he renounced worldly life and left home in search of truth. Living his life as an aesthetic and practising deep penance and meditation, Mahavira attained Kevala Jnana or true knowledge. His followers came to be known as Jains. The Jain scriptures and texts, also known as agamas, contain the legendary accounts of Mahavira’s life and his teachings. After Mahavira’s death, due to dissent over the doctrines of Mahavira, the Jain community split into two sects: the Svetambara and the Digambaras.

Jain literature/Jain canon

The oldest scriptures of Jain literature date back to the 11th century. It is believed that during ancient times, the sacred teachings of Jainism were transmitted through oral traditions. The original, unadulterated teachings of the Tirthankaras, which are now lost, are said to have been contained in 14 ancient Purva texts. Jain councils were held to systemise and preserve the sacred oral teachings. 

The first council was held at Pataliputra, present-day Patna, followed by the second councils held simultaneously at Mathura and Vallabhi. The last council was held at Vallabhi (Gujarat) without the participation of the Digambaras. In the first council, the Jain monks assembled to put together their sacred knowledge and compile the 11 Angas but failed to gather the last one, Ditthivada, the 12th Anga, due to the absence of Bhadrabahu, who had the knowledge of the fourteen Purvas. His refusal to participate led to the loss of the Purva knowledge. The last council held at Vallabhi led to the codification of the Svetambara canon, which is still preached.

Svetambara canon

The Svetambara canon comprises 45 works: 12 Angas; 12 Upangas; 10 Prakīrṇakas; 6 Cheda-sutras; 2 Cūlikā-sutras; and 4 Mūla-sutras. These literary works comprise the names of the Tirthankaras, their life accounts, and their teachings. The canons were initially written in the Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit dialect and compiled as manuscripts under the leadership of Acharya Shraman Devardhigani. From the Gupta Age, the Jain scholars started writing in Sanskrit to reach a larger audience.

Angas

The twelve Angas are:

1. Āyāraṃga: It describes the monastic conduct and the life of an ascetic. It also sheds light on the penance of Mahavira.
2. Sūyagaḍa: It describes the nonviolence approach, heretical doctrines, and wrong beliefs. It includes a description of hell and the destruction of karma.
3. Sthānānga: It includes diverse topics such as Jain metaphysics, mathematics, and other branches of Jain knowledge.
4. Samavāyaṃga: It contains knowledge about mathematics and astronomy.
5. Viyāha-pannatti/Bhagavaī: It contains 3600 questions answered by Mahavira related to different topics, which ranged from monastic conduct to cosmology.
6. Nāyā-dhamma-kahāo: It contains stories of knowledge and righteousness.
7. Uvāsaga-dasāo: It contains stories that depict the devotion of the lay attendees and their courage in the face of demonic attacks.
8. Aṇuttarovavāiya-dasāo: It contains stories of individuals who succeeded in attaining salvation, breaking their karma cycle, and putting an end to reincarnations.
9. Anuttaraupapātikadaśāh: It depicts the stories of those who gathered good karmas and were successful in attaining the highest heavens.
10. Paṇha-vāgaraṇa: It contains information about the five sins, namely, killing, stealing, lying, sexual misconduct, and greed, and the bad karma related to them.
11. Vivāga-suya: It is a compilation of 20 stories – 10 stories of people who experience the outcome of bad karma; and 10 stories of people who experience the outcome of good karma.
12. Drstivāda: This Anga is believed to have disappeared by the time the second council was organised in 512 AD. 

Other texts

• There exist 12 Upangas that are supplements to the 12 original Angas. Each Upanga corresponds to one Anga and provides a detailed explanation of the Anga. The 12 Upangas are:  Uvavāiya-sutta; Rāya-paseṇaijja; Jīvājīvābhigama; Pannavaṇā; Sūriya-pannatti; Jambūdvīpa-pannatti; Canda-pannatti; Nirayāvaliyāo; Kappāvaḍaṃsiāo; Pupphiāo; Puppha-cūliāo; and Vaṇhi-dasāo. These are written in Ardha-Magadhi, just like Angas
• The ten Prakīrṇakas describe independent or miscellaneous subjects, such as medical knowledge, astronomy, fasting to death, monastic knowledge and life, and prophecies. Unlike the Angas and Upangas, they are written in the Jaina Māhārāṣṭrī dialect of the Prakrit language
• The six Cheda-sutras are literary texts related to the conduct of Monks and Nuns
• The four Mūla-sutras are fundamental texts which teach the basics of Jain doctrines and act as a guide in the earlier stages of monkhood. They are also written in the Ardha-Magadhi dialect
• The two Cūlikā-sutras provide a methodological and epistemological context for the whole canon

Digambara canon

The Digambara sect does not recognise the entire Svetambara canon. They are of the belief that the original scriptures, the Purvas, are lost, and only their essence has been preserved in the Jain texts written over centuries by Jain scholars. The Digambara canon is written in Jaina Śaurasenī Prakrit and comprises two main texts, namely, Ṣaṭkhaṇḍāgama and Kaṣāya-prābhṛta. Additionally, three commentaries on the main texts and four Anuyogas consisting of more than 20 texts are reference works recognised by the Digambara sect. The Anuyogas contained knowledge and learning from various fields.  

Niryuktis

Bhadrabahu was a Jain scholar who could recite all the fourteen Purvas or sacred texts of Jainism. He was called Sutra Kevali because of his skill in reciting all sutras.  Niryuktis were written in Prakrit by Bhadrabahu. It contains commentaries on 10 of the 12 original scriptures. They contain mantras to be recited during the daily Jain rituals, specifically related to penance. It also contains information about the Jinas, the source of all teachings.

Influence of Jain literature

A major portion of Jain literature was written in Prakrit. Mahavira preached in a mixed dialect called Ardha-Magadhi in order to make it easy for the people to understand his teachings. Mahavira’s teachings were composed in Ardha-Magadhi and later compiled into 12 books called Angas. Jainism also made an impact on the literature of the South. Jain influence can be traced in early Kannada literature.

Conclusion

The Jain scriptures and texts, also known as agamas, contain the legendary accounts of the Tirthankaras’ life and his teachings. During ancient times, the sacred teachings of Jainism were transmitted through oral traditions. The original, unadulterated teachings of the Tirthankaras, which are now lost, are said to have been contained in 14 ancient or Purva texts. 

The Svetambara canon comprises 45 works: 12 Angas; 12 Upangas; 10 Prakīrṇakas; 6 Cheda-sutras; 2 Cūlikā-sutras; and 4 Mūla-sutras. 

The Digambara canon is written in Jaina Śaurasenī Prakrit and comprises two main texts, namely, Ṣaṭkhaṇḍāgama and Kaṣāya-prābhṛta, along with three commentaries on the main texts, and four Anuyogas. Niryuktis, written by Bhadrabahu, contains commentaries on 10 of the 12 original scriptures.