Key Points

1. Later Vedic Age is the time that followed the Rig Vedic Age.
2. The social system grew increasingly strict throughout the later Vedic era.
3. During this period, the Varna system gained popularity, and a girl’s birth was seen as a terrible omen.
4. During this period, women were not allowed to attend school, and child marriage was common.
5. Women were not permitted to speak in public and were seen as second-class citizens in our culture.
6. People were classified as Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras, and vocations were passed down the generations.
7. Kings did not have a standing army even in later Vedic times. Tribal units were activated during times of conflict. To win battles, the monarch had to eat from the same dish as his subjects.

In the later Vedic period, the Aryans migrated eastward, settling in western and eastern Uttar Pradesh (Kosala) and Bihar. Thus, they had better and stronger control over vast and extensive areas. During their migration, they were exposed to various types of communities, tribes, and politics.

Polity

The concept of territory and territorial administration appeared. Smaller kingdoms were combined and formed renowned kingdoms like Mahajanapadas. The scale of the wars grew and they became more deadly. As a result, the king’s needs became extremely important in light of the new situation.

To keep power in the hands of the King/ruling class and the priests, they devised a system of Varna, which was based on birth. Thus, the children of the ruling class and of the priestly class automatically became kings or priests, respectively.

Rituals and sacrifices such as Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Vajpeya (chariot race) and Asvamedha (horse sacrifice) were performed to strengthen the king’s position. The performing priests conferred divine status on the king, as they gained financially from such sacrifices through massive donations, and thus, the kings were equated with the Gods. As a result, the notion of ‘Divine Kingship’ was born. The king and his lineage rose to prominence in the Vedic culture.

The Vaishyas were compelled to remain Vaishyas and pay taxes to the king. Vaishyas’ children automatically became Vaishyas and were forced to pay taxes. Children of Shudras, on the other hand, were born as Shudras. Thus, the Varna System concentrated power in two classes (ruling and priestly and ensured a steady supply of tax revenue (from Vaishyas) and manual labour (from Shudras).

Administration

1. The structure of Sabha and Samiti was changed and their importance declined. They were dominated by chiefs and rich nobles. Women were no longer permitted there.
2. Ministry: The early ministers remained there but some new ministers got included. They include Mahishi (Main Queen of King), Purohit (priest), Senani (commander), Sangrahit (treasurer- to look after income and expenditure of the kingdom), Bhagdut (tax-collector), Gramini (Village- headman), Suta (Chariot driver).
3. Divine kingship: Kings became responsible solely to the Gods.  They had no need to listen to the ministry’s advice. The recommendations were not obligatory to obey. As a result, the previous regulation of ‘Mantris’ was lost. Additionally, the gifts that a civilian would offer voluntarily ceased and became a ‘tax.’
4. Military System: Owing to the frequency of battles, a king was forced to systemise his military system. As a result, during this time period, a proper military structure emerged.

Economy

Agriculture was the chief occupation. Industrial work like metalwork, pottery, and carpentry was also being done. The economic condition started foreign trade with regions like Babylon and Sumeria. Vedic Aryans began to produce a significant surplus at this stage. The expansion of agricultural surplus paved the way for the growth of crafts and trade.

The trade progressed as agricultural production increased. The Vedic Aryans now ruled over a much larger area than before. As a result, markets were also widened. The rise of trade compelled merchants to band together. As a result, proto-guilds or early trading organisations arose during this period. Early coins, such as Nishka and  Karshapana,   were introduced in India in response to the increased trade, but their use was restricted to smaller transactions. Bullock carts and waterways were used to transport the goods.

Conclusion

During the end of the later Vedic period, a significant backlash arose against priestly dominance, cults, and rituals, particularly in Panchalas and Videha, where the Upanishads were produced about 600 BCE. These philosophical works criticised the rites, and rituals, as well as emphasised the importance of correct belief and understanding. The revolution against sacrifices, the varna system, and other rites led to the establishment of Buddhism and Jainism.

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