The economy during mediaeval India

During the mediaeval era, people used to pursue various vocational crafts and other practices to sustain their livelihood. The practices included agriculture, trade and commerce, various artisan crafts, etc. Over the course of time, these activities underwent various changes. The state, based on the product and the resources, levied taxes on the people for the sustenance of their rule.

Aspects of the Economy of the Mediaeval Era

Agriculture

During the era of the Delhi Sultanate, the fertile region of the Ganga-Yamuna doab was covered with grasslands and forests. The rulers then adopted the expansion of agriculture by bringing the non-cultivated areas under cultivation and clearing the grasslands and forests. By the time of the Mughals, agriculture became the principal mode of practice and a major source of the state revenue collections.

Crop Pattern

• Food crops- The primary food crops comprised wheat, rice, millets, barley and pulses like gram, arhar, moong, etc
• Cash crops-The primary cash crops comprised sugarcane, indigo, silk, opium, tobacco, etc. Sericulture (silkworm rearing) was practised on a modest scale during the Sultanate rule, but it expanded during the Mughal rule, with Bengal being the major area for the production of silk
• Fruits and vegetables-The practice of laying down fruit orchards on a grand scale started in the mediaeval era. Apart from the indigenous fruits and vegetables, other fruits introduced from outside India were papaya, pineapple, cashew nut, cherries, etc. The vegetables from outside India included potatoes, chillies, tomatoes, etc
• Spices-The major spices produced were saffron, black pepper, cloves, cardamom, etc

Land Revenue System

The land revenue reforms were mainly done by Alauddin Khilji, Sher Shah Suri and Akbar. Different modes of revenue assessment were used, the simplest being the batai or crop sharing. In this system, the state used to fix a certain amount of the product as the share of the state. There was a second method known as the Kankut. The measurements were an important aspect of this system. After measuring the land, the land revenue was fixed according to the estimated land productivity. Sher Shah further differentiated the land into three types: good, middling and bad, and the produce was estimated according to these types. The state share was fixed at 1/3rd of the produce. The third method was the Zabt system which was similar to the Kankut system. The rates were determined on the basis of the type of crops and productivity.

As this system constituted the major source of revenue for the state, the government used to promote the expansion of agricultural lands to generate more revenue. 

Trade & Commerce

India had a very well-developed system of trade and commerce, both internal and external trade. The external mainland trade was carried out with Central Asia, China, Afghanistan and Persia. The overseas trade was carried out in the Persian Gulf, the Arabian Sea, the South China Sea, the Red Sea, etc. 

• The merchants- A number of mercantile communities like Bohras, Khatris, Karwanis, Sarrafs, Dalals, etc., were an important part of the mediaeval era society. Hundis, or bills of exchange, were a common commercial practice during the mediaeval times. They were paper documents that were meant for giving money after a fixed time period and place. It was considered a safe and feasible method for handling large amounts of money transactions.
• Inland trade-By the time of the Mughals, inland trade thrived due to the presence of local markets near almost every locality. The local markets had links with the larger commercial markets according to their regions. The biggest commercial markets during the Mughal period were Delhi, Agra, Patna, Bijapur, Lahore, Cochin, Hyderabad, Calicut, etc. These commercial centres handled products from both the inland and external trade.
• Foreign trade-Since ancient times, India has been maintaining trade relations with other countries. During the Sultanate period, India exported textiles, enslaved people, spices, precious stones, indigo etc. and imported gold and silver, horses, silk, brocade, etc. During the Mughals, India exported textiles, spices, sugar and opium, etc. and imported gold, silver, silk, wine, perfumes, carpets, porcelain, etc.

Artisanal Production:

This section dealt with products that were non-agricultural. It was based on a multitude of vocational crafts such as metal works, pottery, textiles, dye-making, shipbuilding, woodwork, sugar making, manufacturing of arms and armour, paper making, etc. Craft production used to be in villages or qasbas, as well as in imperial Karkhanas. In rural areas, the products made by artisans were for daily use purposes. The artisans based in towns made products meant for the markets. They also had specialised craftsmen for nearly every article available in the markets. The imperial workshops or the Karkhanas were meant to make expensive and luxurious products exclusively for the household and the court. The most skilled craftsmen were employed for the royal karkhanas.

Conclusion

In this article, we saw that India was an agrarian economy during the mediaeval times. As a major source of the state revenue collections, agricultural practices were encouraged, and gradually, more land area was brought under cultivation. India also had a very well-developed system of trade and commerce, both internal and external trade. Exchange of commodities like spices, food grains, indigo, gold, silver, porcelain, silk, brocade, etc., took place. India also has a considerate number of skilled craftsmen who produce various products for both internal and external trade.