Faculty of GA&GS in Delhi Since 2010.Selected in LIC(ADO),BankPO,CGL,2 Times Mains in CSE,Founder:-GovtJobsAcademy @Youtube/Telegram/FB/Web.

Vikas Kumar Singh Tomar

Prior to 1947, India’s trade was a typical colonial trade, in which we used to supply raw materials to our colonial master and imported the manufactured goods. So, naturally the industrialization at home was not permitted. The indigenous handicrafts suffered because of the competition from the British manufactured products as well as British traders located in India as well as abroad.

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(Hindi) India’s Foreign Trade {BOP, BOT, Current Account, Capital Account, FII& FDI }

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Prior to 1947, India’s trade was a typical colonial trade, in which she used to supply raw materials to the colonial master and imported the manufactured goods. So, naturally the industrialization at home was not permitted. The indigenous handicrafts suffered because of the competition from the British manufactured products as well as British traders located in India as well as abroad.

The colonial pattern of trade was to be changed after independence. The first major challenge was the increase in the production capacity of the country. So, this led to import of the heavy plants and machinery which was called the “developmental Imports”.

To maintain the productive capacity of the country, the objects such as machines were imported and this was called “maintenance imports”. The above two similar kinds of imports were vital for a developing country like ours which just embarked on the path of the economic development.

Apart from that , India needed to import a lots of Food grains in the beginning of the independent era. Since, the food grain production in the country was so less to fulfil needs. The import of food grains was also necessary to contain the inflation in these consumer goods.

This objective of writing the above paragraph is to say that India when became independent was heavily dependent upon the imports. The higher imports and negligible exports means a pressure on the balance of trade. The result is pressure on the economy.

So, there was need to encourage the exports. The imports were inelastic, and to fight with the pressure of the foreign debt, the country needed to boost its exports.

Basic Introduction of India’s Foreign Trade (in Hindi)

The balance of payments (BOP) records financial transactions made between consumers, businesses and the government in one country with others

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS: The balance of payments accounts of a country record the payments and receipts of the residents of the country in their transactions with residents of other countries. If all transactions are included, the payments and receipts of each country are, and must be, equal. Any apparent inequality simply leaves one country acquiring assets in the others.


The balance of trade (a.k.a. current account) is included in the balance of payments. 


BALANCE OF TRADE: The difference between the value of goods and services exported out of a country and the value of goods and services imported into the country. The balance of trade is the official term for net exports that makes up the balance of payments. The balance of trade can be a "favorable" surplus (exports exceed imports) or an "unfavorable" deficit (imports exceed exports). The official balance of trade is separated into the balance of merchandise trade for tangible goods and the balance of services.... 

A balance of trade surplus is most favorable to domestic producers responsible for the exports. However, this is also likely to be unfavorable to domestic consumers of the exports who pay higher prices. 

Alternatively, a balance of trade deficit is most unfavorable to domestic producers in competition with the imports, but it can also be favorable to domestic consumers of the exports who pay lower prices....

All About Balance of Payments and Balance Of Trade (in Hindi)

In simple terms the current account is like a chequing account, and is used to record transactional inflows and outflows for goods and services and potentially investment income.

The capital account is like a loan account which allows countries with a currency surplus from selling goods say to invest and effectively lend money to the country that has bought the goods and has a deficit in terms of income.

If you are a country in surplus then selling goods and ending up with foreign currency you can only do a few things with it. Try and convert it to your own currency which may not be freely convertible (i.e. CNY), keep it as reserves earning little or no interest or keep it as reserves by investing in interest bearing government debt.

All About Current Account and Capital Account with Current Account Deficit (in Hindi)

After the BoP crisis of 1990-91 and change in the central Government, the LERMS was introduced as a first measure towards making foreign exchange a free commodity. By LERMS, the exporters of goods and services and those who are recipients of remittances from abroad could sell the part of their foreign exchange receipts at market determined rates. Similarly, those who need to import goods and services or undertake travel abroad could buy foreign exchange to meet such needs, at market determined rates from the authorised dealers, subject to their transactions being eligible under the liberalised exchange control system.

But this was not for all exports and imports but in respect of some priority imports and transactions, provisions were made in the scheme for making available foreign exchange at the official rate by the Reserve Bank of India. Thus, when LERMs was introduced, there were two exchange rates in India:

Official Rate for select items of exports and imports
Market Rate for all others.
The Government said that now onwards, anyone who deals in current account means international trade of goods and services will be able to convert them to Indian Rupees as follows:

40 % of the receipts at Official rate
60% of the receipts at Market Rate
This means that only part of the current account receipts were made convertible at market rates and that is why it was called Partial Convertibility of Rupee on Current Account. The imports of materials other than petroleum, oil products, fertilizers, defence and life-saving drugs and equipment always had to be effected against market determined rates.

We see that practically, all the receipts of foreign exchange were required to be surrendered to authorised dealers. The only difference was that of the 60% of it could be converted at the free market rate quoted by authorised dealers. The Partial convertibility of Rupee is known as Dual exchange system. At that time, India’s current account was showing large deficit so it was risky to introduce the full convertibility of Rupee.

The major objective of the partial convertibility of Rupee was to “make the foreign exchange available at a low price for essential imports so that the prices of the essentials are not pushed up by the high market price of the foreign exchange”.

Full convertibility of Rupee on Current Account

When Partial convertibility of Rupee on current account was introduced 1992, government had announced its intention to introduce the full convertibility on the current account in 3 to 5 years. The full convertibility means no RBI dictated rates and there is a unified market determined exchange rate regime. Encouraged with the success of the LERMS, the government introduced the full convertibility of Rupee in Trade account(means only merchandise trade no service trade)from March 1993 onwards. With this the dual exchange rate system got automatically abolished and LERMS was now based upon the open market exchange. The full convertibility of Rupee was followed by stability in the Rupee Rate in the next many months coming up.

The above full convertibility was introduced on Trade account. The Government wanted to introduce the Full convertibility of Rupee on Current account (means invisible also included). In August 1994, the Government of India declared full convertibility of Rupee on Current account with announcing some relaxations as per requirements of the Article VIII of the IMF. These were:

Repatriation of the income earned by the NRIs and overseas corporate bodies of NRIs in a Phased manner in 3 years period.
The ceiling for providing foreign exchange for foreign tours, education, medical treatment, gifts and services was made just an indicative. Above this ceiling, foreign exchange could be obtained for payments, while making a reference to RBI.
While the Principal amount on the NRNR (Non Resident Non Repatriable) Accounts was non repatriable, the interest was made repatriable.
Capital Account Convertibility

Please note that the concept of Capital Account Convertibility was coined by RBI and CAC is now almost synonymous with the SS Tarapore Committee. Capital account is made up of both the short-term and long-term capital transactions such as investments in financial and non-financial assets. The Capital Transaction may be Capital outflow or capital inflow.

Capital account convertibility (CAC) or a floating exchange rate means the freedom to convert local financial assets into foreign financial assets and vice versa at market determined rates of exchange.This means that capital account convertibility allows anyone to freely move from local currency into foreign currency and back.

Convertibility on the capital account is usually introduced after a certain period of introducing the Current account convertibility. The most important effect of introducing the capital account convertibility is that it encourages the inflow of the foreign capital, because under certain conditions, the foreign investors are enabled to repatriate their investments, wherever they want. But the risk is that it may accelerate the flight of the capital from the country if things are unfavourable. For example, an Indian can sell property here and take the Capital outside. This is why; it is generally introduced after experimenting with the convertibility on current account.

Presently, India has current account convertibility. This means one can import and export goods or receive or make payments for services rendered. However, investments and borrowings are restricted.
Tarapore Committee on Capital Account Convertibility

CAC is considered to be one of the major features of a developed economy. CAC helps attract foreign investment and offers foreign investors a lot of comfort as they can re-convert local currency into foreign currency anytime they want to and take their money away. Capital account convertibility also makes it easier for domestic companies to tap foreign markets. But, jumping into capital account convertibility game without considering the downside of the step can harm the economy.   The Committee on Capital Account Convertibility (CAC) or Tarapore Committee was constituted by the Reserve Bank of India for suggesting a roadmap on full convertibility of Rupee on Capital Account. The committee submitted its report in May 1997. The committee observed that there is no clear definition of CAC. The CAC as per the standards – refers to the freedom to convert the local financial assets into foreign financial assets or vice versa at the market determined rates of exchange.  Here is what this committee observed:

The Capital Control must stay here.Capital controls can be useful in insulating the economy of the country from the volatile capital flows during the transitional periods and also in providing time to the authorities, so that they can pursue discretionary domestic policies to strengthen the initial conditions.
The Capital Account Convertibility, if the Government wants, can be introduced for a 3 year period viz. 1997-98, 1998-99 and 1999-2000. However, there are some pre conditions as follows:
First bring you Gross fiscal deficit to GDP ratio from 4.5 per cent in 1997-98 to 3.5% in 1999-2000.
Create a consolidated sinking fund which can meet the government’s debt repayment needs. It can be financed by increased in RBI’s profit transfer to the govt. and disinvestment proceeds.
Bring the Inflation rate between an average 3-5 per cent for the 3-year period 1997-2000.
Bring down the Gross NPAs of the public sector banking system from the present 13.7% to 5% by 2000. At the same time, average effective CRR needs to be brought down from the current 9.3% to 3%.
RBI should have a Monitoring Exchange Rate Band of plus minus 5% around a neutral Real Effective Exchange Rate.
External sector policies should be designed to increase current receipts to GDP ratio and bring down the debt servicing ratio from 25% to 20%
Four indicators should be used for evaluating adequacy of foreign exchange reserves to safeguard against any contingency. Plus, a minimum net foreign asset to currency ratio of 40 per cent should be prescribed by law in the RBI Act.
We see that the Tarapore committee came up with some not from this world recommendations. It was not a good idea to ignore the prerequisites so CAC was not translated into reality.

However, some partial convertibility of Rupee on Capital Account was introduced later. Today we have Partial convertibility of Rupee on Capital Account.

The Second Tarapore Committee on Capital Account Convertibility

Reserve Bank of India appointed the second Tarapore committee to set out the framework for fuller Capital Account Convertibility. The committee was established by RBI in consultation with the Government to revisit the subject of fuller capital account convertibility in the context of the progress in economic reforms, the stability of the external and financial sectors, accelerated growth and global integration. The report of this committee was made public by RBI on 1st September 2006. In this report, the committee suggested 3 phases of adopting the full convertibility of rupee in capital account.

First Phase in 2006-7
Second phase in 2007-09
Third Phase by 2011.
Following were some important recommendations of this committee:

The ceiling for External Commercial Borrowings (ECB) should be raised for automatic approval.
NRI should be allowed to invest in capital markets
NRI deposits should be given tax benefits.
Improvement of the Banking regulation.
FII (Foreign Institutional Investors) should be prohibited from investing fresh money raised to participatory notes.
Existing PN holders should be given an exit route to phase out completely the PN notes.
It means at present the rupee are fully convertible on the current account, but only partially convertible on the capital account.

Is there any role of RBI in Foreign Exchange or not?

Officially, the Indian rupee has a market-determined exchange rate. So, the way via which RBI affects the exchange rates in India is “Trade”. RBI is very active in currency market and is capable to impact effective exchange rates effectively by its volume of lifting and releasing the foreign currency from and to the market. The impact of RBI on trade is so much that currency regime in India is de facto controlled. That is why we sometimes call it “managed float“. Here we should note that the objective of RBI to intervene in the currency markets is to ensure low volatility in exchange rates, and not to influence the direction of the Indian rupee in relation to other currencies. Further, RBI has one more arm in its arsenal called “capital controls” in addition to intervention through active trading in currency markets.

What are Capital Controls?

Through Capital controls, the RBI controls the foreign capital inflows in the form of loans and equity in India. The current account flows arise out of transactions in goods& services are permanent in nature whereas capital account flows are dynamic in nature and are can be reversed at any time. That is why a close eye on capital flows is needed. The Capital Inflows would include the foreign borrowings by Indian corporates and businesses, NRI deposits and portfolio flows from institutional investors into the stock markets, Loans to government and short-term trade credit. The foreign Capital inflows bring cheaper resources to finance the economy but the dark side is that they pose risks to value of the country’s currency. They can put the liquidity management also in trouble. Because when huge dollars flow, they would need to be bought by Central bank and in turn Central bank would pumps local currency. If there is an abrupt reverse flow of capital, it would put the country into vulnerable condition.

Are we moving towards full Capital Account Convertibility?

Though there are certain risks associated with full capital account convertibility, we cannot avoid it for longer period as it may become counter-productive. As the country is becoming more globalised it will be difficult to maintain closed capital accounts. Capital account restrictions may create opportunities for traders to circumvent rules through under-pricing or over-pricing of trade transactions and corporates could use transfer pricing mechanism. But how early are we moving to full capital account convertibility depend on various pre-conditions like low and sustained current account deficit, fiscal-consolidation, controlled inflation, low level of NPAs, resilient financial markets, prudent supervision of financial institutions etc. Already India is making progress on these fronts. The progress can be measured by the attainment of the specific goals mentioned by the two Tarapore committees. The present low level prices of oil and large net invisibles are helping the country moving towards low level of CAD but it needs to be sustained. On inflation front, though we made some progress but it is always an area of suspect. There are other areas where the country is needed to make progress like reduction of NPAs, development of    resilient financial system etc. India cannot escape the full convertibility of capital account as its economy grows further and becomes global in dimension. The country cannot afford to remain isolated for a longer period of time.

Convertibility of Rupee ,Exchange Rate and LERMS to Fix Value of Rupee Globally (in Hindi)

FDI
The Foreign Direct Investment refers to the direct investment into the production and management. This can be one by either buying a company or by expanding operations of an existing business. One example is Unilever which has its own subsidiary and long term investment here via its subsidiary Hindustan Unilever. This means that FDI brings foreign capital, technology & management.
FII
FII (Foreign Institutional Investment) and FPI (Foreign Portfolio Investment) are same things. The foreign institutions invest in a capital / money market which is not their home country. Such kinds of investments are seen in the Mutual Funds, Investment Companies, Pension Funds and Insurance Houses. This means that FII/ FPI brings only capital. FII is also called Foreign Indirect Investment.
QFI
QFI (Qualified Foreign Investor) is an individual, group or association, resident in a foreign country that is compliant with Financial Action Task Force (FATF) standard and that is a signatory to International Organization of Securities Commission’s Multilateral Memorandum of Understanding. Though, QFI are also portfolio investors, yet in context with India, QFIs do not include Foreign Institutional Investors or Sub-accounts as per the regulations.
Differences between FDI and FII
The first notable difference is that while FDI brings foreign capital, technology & management, FII brings only foreign Capital.
Second difference we can understand with an example. Suppose, Wal-Mart comes to India and opens up stores here, this means that the investment made by Wal-Mart would come with a long term commitment. Thus, FDI brings in funds with long term commitments. On the other hand, if the company of Warren Buffett buys shares of an Indian company, they can sell it any time (as per regulations). This means that FII does not come with long term commitment. This also means that the money invested in India via FII can be taken back more easily than FDI. Thus, there is always a risk of flight of capital in terms of FII outflows but not generally in FDIs.
Why Foreign Investors go for FDI?
Foreign direct investment is done for many reasons including to take advantage of cheaper wages in the country, special investment privileges such as tax exemptions offered by the country as an incentive to gain tariff-free access to the markets of the country. FDI can be done to acquire lasting interest in enterprises operating in the target country.
Why Foreign Investors go for FII?
A portfolio investment does not entail active management or control of the target organization. This is done by the investors if they are not interested in involvement in the management of a company. The objective of the indirect investment is to financial gain only and does not create a lasting interest in or effective management control over an enterprise.
How a Foreign Company can enter in India?
A foreign company planning to set up business operations in India need to set up a company under the Companies Act, 1956. For example, Hindustan Unilever is the Indian subsidiary of Unilever, British–Dutch multinational consumer goods company. The incorporation of the company can be done via a Joint Venture or Wholly owned Subsidiary. Foreign equity in such Indian companies can be up to 100% depending on the requirements of the investor, subject to equity caps in respect of the sector/area of activities under the FDI policy.
These companies enter into India via an office or representation in India which is known as Liaison Office/Representative Office or Project Office or even Branch Office. Such offices can undertake activities permitted under the Foreign Exchange Management Regulations, 2000 (Establishment in India of branch or office of other place of business).
What attracts Foreign Direct Investment?
The growth rate of the source economy is an important determinant of FDI into the country. The political and economic stability of the target region attracts FDI. Any FDI investment into the target country depends upon how ‘open’ the economy is towards foreign trade (both imports and exports). Apart from that, the policies, rule, regulations and loopholes incidental thereto also affect the flow of FDI. For example, Mauritius has been top FDI source for India due to the later reasons.
What is the impact of FDI on Inflation?
FDI has been generally touted as a measure to dampen inflation. But this can NOT be concluded in all situations. The FDI’s impact on dampening the inflation is based upon the assumption that FDI would result in the developing of country’s back-end infrastructure and crack the supply bottlenecks. Practically, it may or may not happen. Economics has no rule to link FDI and Inflation because Inflation may have many reasons behind it rather than only infrastructure and supply bottlenecks. Generally the FDI’s role in containing inflation is supported by the facts that:
It improves Infrastructure
It improves supply chain
It brings permanent investment
What is the impact of FII on Inflation or vice-versa?
The FII impact inflation indirectly rather than directly. If there an excess inflow of FII, it may shoot the prices of stocks very high. When stocks become costly, there would be a huge demand for Indian rupees. To fulfil that demand, RBI would need to print more money and pump this money to economy. All of a sudden, if FII withdraw the funds, there would be an excess of liquidity in the markets. This would lead to a situation of too much money chasing too few goods and thus things would become costlier. Thus, unchecked FII inflow and outflow can bring into demand pull inflation.
When there is a high inflation in the country, it repels FII. Rising inflation in India makes the investors bothering.
What are benefits of FII?
Controlled FII helps in improving the local environment. When huge FII comes in, there is much availability of fund for local companies to increase their capacity. The sufficient FII inflow in the country means that the need to borrow from international sources seldom arrives. This helps in those countries where domestic saving is not sufficient for funding the expansion plans.
Why FII inflows are volatile?
FII inflows are aimed at making money on the invested capital i.e. Capital gains. The capital gains are linked to the interest rates and stock market environment. If the interest rates / potential gains in one country go down in comparison to other target country, the FII inflow may halt or outflow may begun. That is why FII money is called hot money sometimes. In summary, the most suitable conditions for FII are as follows:
Attractive Interest Rates
Adequate money supply and stable rate of inflation
Stable exchange rates
Low deficit in Balance of payments.

All About FDI,FII,QFI,FPI etc. (in Hindi)

The Union Government has eased foreign direct investment (FDI) norms for nine sectors to give impetus to job creation and ease of doing business in the country.

Decision in this regard was taken at a high-level meeting chaired by Prime Minister Narendra Modi. With these changes, India becomes most open economy in the world for FDI.

Some of these sectors are

Food products: In this sector, 100% FDI under government approval route has been approved.
It will include trading in food products including through e-commerce, in respect of food products manufactured or produced in India.
Defence Sector: Present FDI regime in this sector permits 49% FDI participation in the equity of a company under automatic route.
Now, FDI beyond 49% has now been permitted through government approval route, in cases resulting in access to modern technology in the country or for other reasons.
FDI limit also has been made applicable to Manufacturing of Small Arms and Ammunitions covered under Arms Act, 1959.
Pharmaceutical Sector: In this sector, 100% FDI under automatic route in greenfield pharma has been approved. FDI up to 100% under government approval in brownfield pharma also has been approved.
Aviation Sector: 100% FDI under automatic route in Greenfield and Brownfield Airport Projects to aid in modernization of the existing airports to establish a high standard.
Animal Husbandry: 100% FDI allowed in Animal Husbandry (including breeding of dogs), Aquaculture, Pisciculture and Apiculture under Automatic Route without requirement of controlled conditions.
Single Brand Retail Trading: Entities undertaking single brand retail trading have been relaxed from local sourcing norms up to 3 years.
Entities engaged in of single brand retail trading of products having ‘state-of-art’ and ‘cutting edge’ technology have been relaxed from local sourcing norms up to 5 years.
Comment

With these liberalised changes in FDI Policy, Union government has permitted 100% FDI under government approval route for almost every sector, including defence except in few sectors mentioned in the small negative list.  In this list, FDI continues to be prohibited in atomic energy, lottery, gambling, real estate and Real Estate Investments Trusts (REIT) and railways operations.

Background

Since 2014, Union Government has brought major FDI policy reforms in a number of sectors, including Insurance, Pension Sector, Defence, Construction Development and Broadcasting etc. Measures undertaken by the Union Government have resulted in increased FDI inflows at 55.46 billion dollars in the financial year 2015-16. This was the highest ever FDI inflow in India for a particular financial year.

FDI limits of Different Sectors,Prohibited Sectors,Routes to Invest trough FDI etc (in Hindi)

FEMA : The Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 (FEMA) is an Act of the Parliament of India “to consolidate and amend the law relating to foreign exchange with the objective of facilitating external trade and payments and for promoting the orderly development and maintenance of foreign exchange market in India”.

All About FEMA&FERA,P-Notes,ADR,GDR,IDR etc (in Hindi)

Under a fixed exchange rate system, devaluation and revaluation are official changes in the value of a country’s currency relative to other currencies. Under a floating exchange rate system, market forces generate changes in the value of the currency, known as currency depreciation or appreciation.

All About Depreciation and Devaluation of Rupee (in Hindi)

Special Economic Zones Act, 2005, was passed by Parliament in May, 2005 and received Presidential assent on the 23rd of June, 2005. The act envisages that the SEZs would attract a large flow of foreign and domestic investment in infrastructure and productive capacity leading to generation of additional economic activity and creation of employment

All About EPZ,SEZ,Offshore Banking Units,LIBOR,MIBOR,DTAA etc (in Hindi)

NRO, NE(E)RA and FCNA(A) Accounts

There are several kinds of accounts available for non resident Indians , Persons of Indian Origin and Overseas Citizens of India. They are as follows:

Non Resident Ordinary Accounts: (NRO):

Any person resident outside of India can open this account. Normally, when a resident becomes a non resident, his domestic rupee account gets converted into the NRO account. This helps the NRI to get his credits which accrue in India, for example rent or interest from investments.

Non-Resident (External) Rupee Account: (NR(E)RA

This account was introduced as NRE scheme in 1970. It’s a Rupee account and the NRI can remit money to India from the funds abroad. This means that depositor is exposed to the Currency rates risk.

Foreign Currency Non-Resident Account: (FCNR)

Foreign Currency Non-Resident Account Bank or FCNR (B) was first introduced in 1993. It replaced the existing FCNR (A) scheme. This account is opened by the NRIs in 6 designated currencies as follows:

US Dollar (USD)
Great Britain Pound (GBP)
Euro (EUR)
Japanese Yen (JPY)
Canadian Dollar (CAD)
Australian Dollar (AUD)
Please note that FCNR account is opened ONLY in the form of Term Deposits and NOT in the form of Demand Deposits.  The term is from 1 year to 5 years.  Repatriation of the principal and interest is allowed for repatriation after maturity.

Interest is paid on maturity, in the same currency of the deposit. For deposits of tenure up to one year simple interest is paid and for deposits of tenure beyond one year the interest is compounded at half yearly rests. The maturity proceeds inclusive of interest is fully repatriable.

The banks may decide the interest rates after approval from RBI and within the limits fixed by RBI. If a person has NRE account and wishes to transfer to FCNR, it is permissible without prior approval of the RBI.

Deposit Insurance in India

In India, the bank deposits are covered under the insurance scheme provided by DICGC. When a bank covered by DICGC fails, or undergoes liquidation or is merged with another bank; the DICGC pays the amount due to depositors via the officially appointed liquidator in a time bound manner.

All About Bank Accounts For NRI’s {FCNR,NRO,NRE Accounts }

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Most Important MCQ of India’s Foreign Trade Part-1 (in Hindi)

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Lessons

13 lessons • 2h 8m

Basic Introduction of India’s Foreign Trade (in Hindi)

All About Balance of Payments and Balance Of Trade (in Hindi)

All About Balance of Payments and Balance Of Trade (in Hindi)

All About Current Account and Capital Account with Current Account Deficit (in Hindi)

Convertibility of Rupee ,Exchange Rate and LERMS to Fix Value of Rupee Globally (in Hindi)

All About FDI,FII,QFI,FPI etc. (in Hindi)

FDI limits of Different Sectors,Prohibited Sectors,Routes to Invest trough FDI etc (in Hindi)

All About FEMA&FERA,P-Notes,ADR,GDR,IDR etc (in Hindi)

All About Depreciation and Devaluation of Rupee (in Hindi)

All About EPZ,SEZ,Offshore Banking Units,LIBOR,MIBOR,DTAA etc (in Hindi)

+ See all lessons