PV cells operate by concentrating sunlight to boil water and drive a steam turbine; the dominant technology is Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) parabolic trough systems

PV cells use the thermoelectric effect—temperature differences between front and back surfaces of silicon wafers generate a current; the dominant technology is cadmium telluride (CdTe) thin film

PV cells use the photovoltaic effect—photons from sunlight excite electrons across a semiconductor p-n junction, creating a direct current (DC); the dominant technology is crystalline silicon (monocrystalline and polycrystalline), accounting for approximately 95% of global PV production

PV cells use photochemical reactions in dye-sensitized electrolytic solutions; the dominant commercial technology is perovskite-dye sensitized cells with efficiency exceeding 40%